A comprehensive account of Indian Ancient History

ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

Sources of Ancient Indian History

Source/work	Author	Period	Short description
Vedas (Rig veda)	Rishis (sages)	5^th century BCE	Also known as Apaurusheya/Shruti/ 4 in numbers Rig,Sama,Yajur and Atharva
Vedangas (limbs of Vedas)	Rishis (sages)	5^th to 2^nd century BCE	Here are six Vedangas Siksha(phonetics), Kalpa(rituals), Vyakararan(grammar), Nirukta(etymology), Chhanda(metrics) & Jyotisha(astronomy)
Ashtadhyayi	Panini	6^th to 5^th century BCE	A treatise on Sanskrit grammar,It sums up 4000 sutras the science of phonetics and grammar that evolved in the Vedic region. It distinguishes between usage in spoken language and usage that is proper to the language of the sacred texts.
Brahmanas	Rishis (sages)	900-700 BCE	These are a collection of ancient Indian texts with commentaries on the hymns of the four Vedas.
Aranyakas	Rishis (sages)	700 BCE	Aranyakas are the ritual sacrifice part of the ancient Indian texts,Vedas. The Aranyakas are distinguished from the Brahmanas in that they may contain information on secret rites to be carried out only by certain persons, as well as more philosophical speculations.
Upanishadas	Rishis (sages)	700 - 500 BCE	Philosophically oriented esoteric texts. Primarily knowledge of the ultimate identity of all phenomena, which merely appeared to be separate. The beginnings of philosophy and mysticism in Indian religious history occurred during the period of the compilation of the Upanishads. Oldest Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishad. Satyameva Jayate in national emblem has been taken from Mundaka Upanishada.
18 Puranas	Rishis (sages)	3^rd to 10^th century CE/A.D.	Comprise myth, legends and traditional lore, historical accounts.
Dharmasutras	Rishis (sages)	600-200 BC	Rules and regulations for the general public and rulers.
Smritis	Rishis (sages)	600-200 BC	Rules and regulations for the general public and rulers.
Mahabhasya	Patanjali	2^nd century BC	A treatise on Sanskrit Grammar.
Mudrarakshasa	Vishakhadatta	4^th century BC	Historical play in Sanskrit which narrates the ascent of Chandragupta Maurya to power in India.
Arthashastra	Kautilya	4^th century BC	A book on statecraft, economy etc.
Indica	Megasthenes	4^th century BC	Describes contemporary king and society of Maurya period.
Buddhacharita	Asvaghosa	2^nd century CE	Life of Gautama Buddha written in Sanskrit.
Malavikagnimitram	Kalidasa	4^th century AD	Based on some events in the reign of Pushyamitra Sunga.
Swapnavāsavadatta, Urubhanga	Bhasa	2^nd century BC to 2^nd century AD	Bhasa was one of the earliest and celebrated playwrights in Sanskrit, most of his works were based on the two epics Ramayana and Mahabharata.
Mrichchhakatika	Sudraka	3^rd century BC to 5^th century AD	The Sanskrit play is set in the ancient city of Ujjain,during the reign of the King Pālaka, near the end of the Pradyota dynasty that made up the first quarter of the fifth century BC.
Harshacharita	Banabhatta	7^th century AD	Biography of Harsha.
Gaudavaho	Vakpati	8^th century CE	Based on the exploits of Yasovarman of Kanauj. The Gaudavaho depicts Yashovarman conquering large swathes of northern India — including Bihar, Bengal, the western Deccan, Indus Valley and Kashmir — before returning in triumph to Kannauj.
Ramcharitam	Sandhyakar Nandi	1050-1150 CE	Sanskrit epic poem written the life of Rampala, the Pala ruler of Bengal.
Vikramankadevacharita	Bilhana	11^th century AD	Bilhana was a Kashmiri poet.the book is treatise on the victory of later or Western Chalukya king Vikramaditya.
Kumarapalacharita	Jayasimha	10^th century AD	36 Rajput clans were chronicled.
Dvayashraya Mahakavya or Kumarapalacharita	Hemachandra	12^th century AD	Hemchandra was a Jain writer and grammarian wrote about king Kumarapala of Anhilwara in Sanskrit and Prakrit grammar, he was also known as Kalikalasarvajna.
Hammirakavya	Nayachandra	1494 AD	Gives information about the Chouhana kings especially Hammira.
Navasahasankacharita	Padmagupta	Last quarter of 10^th century AD	Poetrical quasi historical themes Paramara king Sindhuraja Navasahasanka of Malwa
Prithvirajacharita	Chandbardai	12^th century AD	Exploits of the king Prithviraja Chouhana king.
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea	Unknown foreign author	80 AD approx.	Information of the Indian coast.
Rajatarangini	Kalhana	12^th century A.D.	Historical chronicle of the north-western Indian subcontinent, particularly the kings of Kashmir.

INSCRIPTIONS

Most prominent and reliable source of history writing, these are contemporary document and free from later interpolations. The study of inscriptions are called epigraphy

Inscriptions		Period	Detail
Ashokan inscriptions	Deciphered by James Princep	272-233 BC	Deciphered in 1837, the Brahmi (in Indian heartland) and Kharosthi(North-western part of the subcontinent).
Hathigumpha inscriptions	Kharavela, the king of Kalinga	Late 1^st century BCE	Written in Prakrit language in Brahmi script regarding the ascent and works of Kharavela in different years.
Nasik inscriptions	Gautamiputra Satakarni (Satavahana King)	2^nd century AD	Composed by his mother Gautami Balashri about the victories of Gautamiputra Satakarni over Shakas, Yavanas and Pahlavas.
Junagarh Rock inscription	Rudradaman I (Shaka Kshatrapa)	150 AD	Earliest Sanskrit inscription, credits Rudradaman I with supporting the cultural arts and Sanskrit literature and repairing the dam, Sudarshana lake built by the Mauryas.
Allahabad Pillar inscriptions	Samudragupta/Harisena	4^th century AD	Written by Harisena it enumerates the achievements of Samudragupta.
Eran inscriptions	Samudragupta	4^th century AD	Describes the annexation of Eran/central India and subduing of the local tribes.
Aihole inscriptions	Ravikirti	634 AD	Enumerates the life and works of Early Chalukya king Pulakeshin II, written in Sanskrit.
Gwalior inscriptions	Bhoja (The Pratihara king)	9^th century CE	Belongs to Bhoja or Mihirbhoja or Mihirkula mentions the construction of temple dedicated to Surya.
Deopara inscriptions	Vijay Sen	2^th to 13^th century CE	Describes the reign of Pala ruler Vijay Sena and Sena dynasty.

Inscriptions		Period	Details
Khalimpur Copper Plate Inscription	Dharmapala	8^th	Pala ruler Dharmapala issued the copper plate stating Dharmapala’s defeat of Indrayudha and the installation of his tributary Chakrayudha at Kannauj.
Naihati copper plate	Laksmana Sena	12-13^th century A D	Regarding order of the king.
Karhat Copper Plate Inscription	Krishna III (Rashtrakutas)	922 CE	Military triumph in far south India over Cholas.

Abbreviations

CE =Common Era,also called AD= anno Domini
BCE=Before Common Era, also called BC= before Christ #Completed

INDIAN HISTORY

PRE HISTORY

Sites of human settlement corresponds to the tools found

Age	Site	Brief Description
Lower Palaeolithic Age Aleuchian tools used in the Lower Palaeolithic Age	Swan Valley(Kashmir)	Aleuchian tools Characteristic of Lower Palaeolithic Age
	Siwalik ranges (Himachal Pradesh)	18 Lakh years old/
	Patwar plateau (Pakistan)	20 Lakh years old
	Didwana(Rajasthan),
	Hunsgi Valley (Karnataka)
	Attirapakkam (Tamil Nadu),
	Pravara Valley at Nevasa(Maharashtra)
	Adi Chadi Wao (Gujarat)
	Bhimbetka rock caves(MP)	Discovered by V. S. Wakankar, a UNESCO world heritage site declared in 1970
	Adamgarh(MP)
	Belan Valley(UP)
Middle Palaeolithic Age	Bhimbetka, Belan, Nevasa(Maharashtra) Renigunta(AP) Gudiyam cave(TN)	Flake tool technology, tools became smaller and sharper
Upper Palaeolithic Age	Parts of Rajasthan, Belan, Ganga Valley	Parallel sided blades from carefully prepared core, people were hunter-gatherers

Mesolithic Age

Chalisgaon(Maharashtra)

Also termed as Late Stone Age, use of microliths. Parallel sided blades of chert, jasper chalcedony,quartz, domestication of animals started, ,

Sarai Nahar Rai, Chopani Mando,

Mahadaha,Damdama,Koldihawa (UP)

Bagor(Rajasthan)

Langhnaj(Gujarat)

Bhimbetka, Adamgarh(MP)

Neolithic age

Chechar,Chirand(Bihar)

Burzahom (Kashmir)

Mehrgarh(Pakistan)

Gufkral,Burzahom(J&K)

Mahadaha, Belan Valley Koldihawa,Chopani, Mando(UP)

Payampalli(TN)

Kodekal,Utnur,Nagarjunakonda,

Palavoy(Andhra Pradesh)

Tekkalkolta,Maski,T.Narsipur,

Sangankallu,Hallur,

Brahmagiri(Karnataka)

Uses of flints, beginning of settled life Society started to base upon agriculture, use of pottery, developed earthen pots made from wheel.

*Highlighted places pointed on the map

Rock Art

Chargul in Northwest Pakistan; Murhana Pahar(UP), Bhimbetka(Figure below), Adamgarh,Lakha Juar(Madhya Pradesh), Kupagallu(Karnataka)

Chalcolithic Age

Chalcolithic cultures are:

Ahar culture

Kayatha culture

Malwa culture

Savalda culture

Jorwe culture

Prabhas culture

Rangpur culture

Almost all flourished in the black cotton soil region like Central India,

Deccan

Copper Hoard Culture:-Bithur(Kanpur)

Gungeria(MP)

Almora (Uttaranchal)

Quetta,Daimabad,

=>Use of metal (Copper & bronze)tools,without reaching level of urbanization.

=>axes,chisels,bangles,beads,hooks made up of copper were used

=>Ochre Coloured Pottery(OCP) were in practice as found in Navdatoli, Ganga valley region.

INDUS VALLEY CIVILIZATION/HARAPPAN CULTURE

Time period: 3000 BC- 1750 BC (Mortimer Wheeler 2500-1500BC)

Geographical Distribution:

Western extent-Sukta gen dor (Pakistan)

Northern extent-Burzhom(J&K)

Southern extent-Daimabad,(Maharashtra)

Eastern extent-Alamgirpur, near Meerut (UP)

Site	Discovered by	Brief Description
Mohenjo daro (Sind,Pakistan)	R D Banerjee (1921-1922), Sir John Marshall	Means ‘Mounds of dead, largest city of the Harappan culture, with a citadel, Great Bath,granary, bronze dancing girl, often occurrence of floods in Mohenjodaro
Harappa (Sind,Pakistan)	Dayaram Sahni,1921	Grat granary,so far 891 seals discovered, citadel present
Chan hu Daro	N.G. Majumdar,1931	Only Indus city without citadel, Pre-harappan as well as harappan characteristics, destroyed by inundations
Banawali	R.S.Bisht,1973	Pre-Harappan and Harappan cultures present , statue of mother goddess was found here
Lothal (Gujrat)	S R Rao,1957	Dock yard and large no. of seals found
Kalibangan (Rajasthan)	A.Ghosh,1953	Pre-Harappan site,
Ganeriwala		Recent site found in Pakistan
Ropar	Y.D.Sharma,1955-56	Excavationsyielded five fold sequences of cultures, Harappan till medieval times
Surkotada	J.Joshi,1972-75	Citadel and a town with fortifications, only oIndus site where remains of horses found
Mehrgarh, near Bolan Pass, Pakistan		Traces of cotton cultivation, Neolithic site
Kot Diji, Khairpur District, Pakistan		Pre-Harappan and Post Harappan two phases found
Dholavira, Kachch, Gujarat	R.S.Bisht	Largest inscription found possibly of signboard, Largest of Harappan settlements in India other being Rakhigarhi, Haryana

Characteristics

A bronze age civilization some also refer to as Chalcolithic culture
Principally an urban culture, with high level of town planning, each city had a series of walled sectors or mounds
Buildings were built by mud-bricks or kiln-fired-bricks, bathing areas made of baked bricks or stones
Civic sense of the people was good, showing no encroachment of public roads and even smaller town and villages had impressive drainage systems
Crafts and industry was developed, use of knives made of chert blades was in practice, steatite used for making seals beads, bracelets,buttons
Granaries found in Mohenjo Daro, Harappa, Kalibangan and Lothal
Use of copper, tin, gold alloy like bronze were in used, traces of silver mixed with gold found, no use of iron has been reported
Harappan pottery represents a blend of ceramic tradition of the pre-Harappan culture, also OCP or ochre coloured pottery
Trade and commerce: Highly developed system of communication and strong economy, intensive agriculture and large scale trade with commodities like copper ore (probably from Khetri mines of Rajasthan),agricultural produce,precious and semi-precious stones, ornaments of gold and silver, lapis lazuli from Kashmir. Trade with central Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt were in practice.
Animal domesticated: sheep, goat, humped bull, buffalo, elephant
Arts: Dancing girl from Mohenjodaro, large no. of terracotta figurines, largest number of seals depict unicorn,
Script: Mostly similar to Dravidian script, not deciphered till date
Religion: worship of mother godesses,worship of male deity probably Shiva,worship of lingas,worship of trees like Peepal
Decline: 1. John Marshall –Due to environmental degradation, cutting of trees for fuel in the large no. of brick kilns.

Mortimer Wheeler – Indo-Aryans destroyed the Harappan culture in about 1500BC(but there was no archaeological evidence to confirm this fact of invasion or war in the Indus valley civilization.
Occasional flood brought about by Indus river to the prime river of the civilization
Drying up the Saraswati river

Harappan culture disappeared by 1300BC

EARLY VEDIC CULTURE

Divided into early i) Early Vedic culture

ii) Later Vedic culture

Veda means ‘knowledge’, four in number, is collection of hymns, prayers, charms, litanies, and sacrificial formulae. Earliest of all Vedas is Rig Veda.

According to B G Tilak Rig Veda was composed in 6000BC.

Harmon Jacobi (4500-2500BC age of Vedic civilization

Winternitz(German Sanskritist) considers age of Vedic civilization to 3000BC

i.Rig veda	Earliest of all Vedas contains hymns most probably composed in 1200-1000BC
ii.Samveda	Songs mostly taken from Rigveda
iii.Yajurveda	Sacrificial formulae
iv.Atharvaveda	Spells and charms

Brahmanas: These are a collection of ancient Indian texts with commentaries on the hymns of the four Vedas.

Aranyakas: Aranyakas are the ritual sacrifice part of the ancient Indian texts,Vedas. The Aranyakas are distinguished from the Brahmanas in that they may contain information on secret rites to be carried out only by certain persons, as well as more philosophical speculations.

Upanishads: Philosophically oriented esoteric texts. Primarily knowledge of the ultimate identity of all phenomena, which merely appeared to be separate. The beginnings of philosophy and mysticism in Indian religious history occurred during the period of the compilation of the Upanishads.Oldest Brihadaranyaka and Chhandogya Upanishad.

Boghaz Koi inscription: in Asia Minor dated 1400Bc mentions the names of some Vedic gods like Indra, Varuna, Mitra and other two Nasatyas. It also records the treaty between Hittite and Mitanni and the above gods were there as witnesses of these treaty

RIGVEDA mentions :

· 21 rivers with Ganga in the east and Kubha (Kabul) in the west in its Nadisukta hymn

· Himalayas and Mujavant mountains

· Battle of ten kings in which Sudasa emerged victorious

· Bharatas, who gave their name to whole country as ’Bharatavarsha’

Societal hierarchy in Rigvedic India:

The Family =Kula
The Village =Grama

The Clan =Vis

The people=Jana
The Country=Rashtra

Society comprised of four varnas, namely Brahmana,Kshatriyas,Vaishya and Shudra. The classification was based on the occupation of individuals.

Term used in Vedic civilization	Meaning
Grama	Village
Gramini	Village headman
Vis	Next larger formation than village
Vispati	Head of vis
Bali	Voluntary gift or tribute
Sabha	Less political body, was a more select body of elders or nobles
Samiti	Meeting or popular assemblies of the elected peoples or common peoples taking important decisions and political business
Hiranya	Gold
Purandara	Indra, Lord of Cities

LATER VEDIC PERIOD

Four Vedas were followed by the Brahmanas, the Upanishadas and the Aranyakas.
Brahmanas,the earliest Aryan prose literature depicting various sacrificial ceremonies and their origins.
Rigveda details the ritualistic(Karmakanda), and ritualistic aspects
Ritualistic aspects were elaborated in Brahmanas, and philosophical aspects were elaborated in Upanishads
Significant Upanishads are Brihadaranyak,Katha,Isa,Katha,Mundaka,Chhandogya
Expansion of people towardsthe east is indicated in a legend of Satapatha Brahmana
In the Upanishads Kuru and Panchala regions had been mentioned
Places mentioned in Rigveda are Vidarbha,Madra(Punjab region),
Places mentioned in the Vedic texts are Kosala,Kashi, Videha,Magadha, Anga
Kingship was given as the status of divine origin, expressions like Ekrat, Samrat, Adhiraja, Rajadhiraja were in use
Special ceremonies of the king used to be performed: Rajsuya, Vajpeya, Ashvamedha
Sabha and Samitis were the checks on the absolutism of the kings in a way as following

People had right in choosing the kings
Conditions were imposed on the kings rights and duties
Kings had to dependent on the council of ministers and the assemblies of the peoples like sabha and samitis
Sabha functioned as a parliament for disposal of public business by debate and discussion
Vajsaneyi Samhita mentions that erring members were rebuked in Sabha
Samiti was different in functions and compositions than Sabha. It was a larger General Assembly of the people

New officials in the Later Vedic Society

Suta	Charioteer
Sangrahitri	Treasurer
Bhagaduga	Collector of taxes
Gramini	Head of the village
Sthapati	Chief judge
Takshan	Carpenter
Kshatri	Chamberlain
Niska and Satamana	Units of currency
Bali	Voluntary gift to chief during the early Vedic period which became regular tax collected to maintain the administrative structure
Ayas	Metal like copper or bronze

Changes in the in the Later Vedic Age

Varna came to be birth-based in contrast to the profession-based varna system of Early Vedic period.
Proliference of the profession led to the formation of Jatis
Aitareya Brahmana mentions Visvamitra as Kshatriya
Growth of vast and varied literature with highest level of intellectual attainment
of Upanishads=200
Birhadaranyaka Upanishad mentions a conference organised by king Janaka with participants like Yajnavalkya,Uddalaka,Aruni,Sakalya,Gargi etc.
Intellectual pursuit by women :Gargi,Maitreyi, and intellectual pursuit by kshatriyas were noteworthy
Mundaka Upanishad contain Aparavidya(Material Science) and Paravidya(Science of the ataman involving life, death, God
Chhandogya Upanishad mentions subjects like Vedas, Mathematics, Mineralogy, Logic, Ethics, Military science etc.

Philosophical systems of India

Type of system	Name	Brief description
Nastika (do not believe in the authorities of God and Vedas)	Charvaka	Also called Lokayata believes in the materialism, there is no life beyond death, death only is the end of man
	Jainism	Philosophies of Jainism, Mahavira was the proponent
	Buddhism	Philosophy preached by Lord Gautama Buddha
Astika (believe in the god and Vedas)	Vaisesika	System is a realistic, analytic and objective philosophy of the world
	Nyaya	Accepts doctrines of the Vaisesika but adds abhava or negation into it, considers God to be the sole creator of the world
	Samkhya	Oldest of all six systems of philosophy,teaches existence of 25 basic principles or tattva. Also mentions the existence of three gunas(Sattva,Rajas and Tamas)
	Yoga	Principles of self control and self mortification is considered as the supreme, Rajayoga(Astanga Marga comprise control measures and hierarchies of the yoga )
	Mimamsa	It is the philosophy of interpretation,applicationand use of the texts like Samhita and Brahmana portion of the Vedas
	Vedanta	Ancient Indian thoughts on philosophy, commentaries of Sankara on Upanishads,Brahmasutras and Bhagavad-Gita.

5.Jainism and Buddhism

Background of emergence of new system of philosophy

Desire to alleviate the miseries of life and finding new mode of salvation, to get rid of the sorrows of life
Intricate social rituals of the Brahmanical systems
Rigid Varna based society led to the formation of numerous religious sects
Many aspects were similar to the existing system like ascetic life with its origin in the Vedic thought and encouragement from Aranyakas
Nirgranthas as many as 62 systems of doctrines to be present before Buddhism arose. Eg.Nirgranthas,Ajivikas,Jatilakas
Some of the teachers of such sects were Purana Kassapa,Makkhali Gosala,Ajitkeshakambalin,Nigantha Natputta, Sanjaya Melatthaputta

Jainism

Tirthankaras	Name	Brief description
1^st	Rishabhanath	Find mention in Rigveda,Vayupurana and Bhagawat Purana
23^rd	Parsva	Son of Ikshabaku king Asvasena of Kashi
24^th	Vardhamana Mahavira	Born in Kundagrama near Vaishali at about 540 BC Father:Siddhartha, ( Kshatriya of Jnatrika clan) Mother:Trisala, sister of a Lichchhavi nobleChetaka of Vaishali

Life of Mahavira

Married to Yasoda
Became ascetic in at the age of 32 years
At the age of 42 he attained kaivalya (supreme knowledge)
Came to be known as the Jina or the conqueror
He passed away at Pawapuri in 468 BC at the age of 72

Philosophy

Accepted four doctrines of Parsva like

a) Non injury to living thing
b) Speaking the truth
c) Non possession of property
d) Non stealing

in addition to the above four Mahavira added 5^th namely celibacy

The Jains did not deny the existence of God but they simply ignore
The universe is eternal and its existence is divided into the cycles of progress(utsarpini) and decline(avasarpini)
Purification of the soul is the purpose of living
The soul that finally set itself free is the attainment of Nirvana according to Jainism.
Monastic life is essential for salvation

Chandragupta Maurya is said to have patronised Jainism, abdicated throne and moved to the Southern India to Shravanbelagola,Karnataka under Thera Bhadrabahu during a terrible famine which broke at Magadha. Keeping Sthulabhadra in charge of Jains at Magadha

Bhadrabahu, the Jain monk convoked a Jain Council at Pataliputra in which Jain cannon was rearranged
Two sects of Jains

Svetambaras(those who put on white robes)

Digambaras(those who remain completely nude)

Buddhism

Founded by Gautama(Buddha)
Born in Sakya clan, father Suddhodhan, king of Sakya republic
Mother: Mayadevi,
Married to Yasodhara, son Rahul
One night left to home to embrace the path of asceticism
Became Buddha( enlightened one)

Principles of Buddhism

Four noble truths(Arya satya) of Buddhism

a) World is full of sorrow (Dukkha)
b) There are causes of sorrow
c) Sorrow can be stopped
d) By following the path leading to cessation of Dukkha

According to Buddha root of all human misery was desire
One can get out of this chain of suffering and achieve salvation (Nirvana) by following eight fold path(Astangik Marga) by Buddha

i.Right speech

ii.Right action

iii.Right means of livelihood

iv.Right exertion

v.Right mindfulness

vi.Right meditation

vii.Right resolution

viii.Right view

The ultimate aim of life is to attain salvation(Nirvana)
Buddha advocated ‘The Middle Path’ in which extremes are avoided
After enlightenment Buddha journeyed to the Deer Park(modern Sarnath) Kashi and gave his first sermon which is also known as “Set in Motion the Wheel of Law”
Followers of Buddha fall in two categories : the Upasakas who lived with family; and the Bhikshus(monks)
Buddha died in the age of 80 in 486 BC at Kushinagar

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Both saw the world as full of sorrow
Salvation of man meant deliverance from eternal chain of birth and death
Both derived their basic principles from the Upanishads
Both did not accept the idea of god
5. Both laid great stress upon a pure and moral life
6. Both the religions in course of time were patronised by several dynasties of ancient India

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN BUDDHISM AND JAINISM

Jainism stressed upon asceticism and practised it in rigorous manner in contrast to the middle path of Buddhism
Buddha denounced the practice of going out naked as done the Svetammvara sect of Jainism
Non injury to the animals was practised by the Jains in a much greater extent than the Buddhists
Spread of Buddhism was far higher than Jainism

AGE OF MAHAJANAPADAS

In 6^th century BC(600BC) Panini mentions presence of 22 different Janapadas of which three were very important like Magadha,Kosala and Vatsa
According to Anguttara Nikaya (a Buddhist text)there were 16 important Mahajanapadas which are as follows:

No.	Name	Capital	Brief description
1	Anga	Champa	Includes modern Districts of Monghyr & Bhagalpur in Bihar
2	Magadha	Rajgriha/Grirvraja	Patna, Gaya and parts of Shahabad in Bihar
3	Vajji/Vriji	Vaishali	Confederacy of 8 republican clans, North of Ganga river, · It was a republic
4	Malla	Kusinara and Pawa	A republican confederacy, areas of Deoria, Basti, Gorakhpur and Siddharthnagar of eastern U.P. capital at Kusinara and Pawa · Mahavira and Buddha both died in this republic
5	Kasi	Varanasi	Modern U.P. on the bank of river Ganges
6	Kosala	Sravasti	Faizabad, Gonda and Bahraich districts of U.P.
7	Vatsa	Kausambi	Districts of Allahabad and Mirzapur
8	Chedi/Chetiya	Shuktimati	Modern Bundelkhand area
9	Kuru	Indraprastha	Delhi and parts of Haryana
10	Panchala	Ahichhatra	Parts of western U.P. upto Kosala Janapada
11	Surasena	Mathura	Covering Brij Mandal
12	Matsya	__________	Areas covering Alwar,Bharatpur and Jaipur of Rajasthan
13	Avanti	Ujjaini and Mahishmati	Modern Malwa
14	Ashmaka/Assaka	Potana	Between river Narmada and Godavari
15	Gandhara	Taxila and Pushkalavati	Western part of Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan
16	Kamboja		Modern district of Hazara in Pakistan

Buddhist Nikaya mentions fivefold divisions of India in to Uttarpath, Madhyadesha, Dakshinapath,Prachi(Eastern)and Apranta(western)
List of Janapadas have been mentioned in Jain text Bhagvatisutra and Sutraktang
Ashtadhyayi of Panini is also mentions lists of Mahajanapadas
Mahabharata also mentions the lists of Mahajanapadas
Indica written by Megastehens also mentions some of the states present at that period of time (4^th century B.C.)
There were some non-monarchical states called as republics or Ganasanghas mentioned in the Buddhist texts which are as follows:

Mallas of Kushinara
Mallas of Pava
Sakyas of Kapilavastu
Lichchhavis of Vaishali
Moriyas of Pippalivana(claims Chandragupta Mauryas to belong to their clan
Koliyas of Ramagrama
Kalamas of Kesaputta

Vajjis were the most important republican state during the period of Buddha

Magadhas

In the sixth century BC the important dynasties rose to prominence are

Mahajanapadas	Dynasties
Magadhas	Haryankas
Kosala	Ikshavakus
Vatsa	Pauravas
Avanti	Pradyotas
Kosala	King Prasenjit
Kausambi	King Udayana

Haryanka Dynasty

Founded by Bimbisara overthrowing Brihadrdathas, annexed Anga, was contemporary of Buddha, and patronised Buddhism

Ajatashatru son of Bimbisara, ,conquered Lichchavis of Vaishali, did not patronize Buddhism,died about 473 BC

Udayin , founded Pataliputra as the new capital of Magadha
No able and worthy successor could represent the dyansty

SISUNAGA DYNASTY

Sisunaga

Kalasoka ( 1^st Buddhist Council)

NANDA DYNASTY

Mahapadma Nanda (was a military genius, and defeated Pauravas,Ikshavakus and the Pradyotas
Dhana Nanda(Last king was a tyrant and was unworthy of ruling according to Kautilya)

ALEXANDER’S INVASION

Darius, the Persian emperor wanted to subjugate the north-western borderland of India
Greek historian Herodotus tells us that in 517 BC Darius sent a naval expedition to explore the valley of Sindhu (Indus) river
In 4^th century BC Greek and Persian fought over the supremacy of western Asia, Alexander defeated Persian king Darius III and advanced towards India
Alexander marched to India through Khyber pass in 326 BC
King of Taxila offered to help Alexander
Faced strong resistance from tribal chief of Hasti with its capital at Pushakalavati
Captured Massaga
TheBattle of the Hydaspes was fought by Alexander the Great in 326 BC against King Porus of the Paurava kingdom on the banks of the river Hydaspes (now known as the Jhelum) in the Punjab near Bhera.
The battle is historically significant for opening up India toGreek political (Seleucid, Greco-Bactrian, Indo-Greek) and cultural influences (Greco-Buddhist art or Gandhara art), which continued to have an impact for many centuries.
In 326 BC, the army of Alexander approached the boundaries of theNanda Empire. His army, exhausted from the continuous campaigning and frightened at the prospect of facing yet another gigantic Indian army, demanded that they should return to the west.

IMPACT OF ALEXANDER’S CAMPAIGN IN INDIA

Before leaving India, he had put several Kshatraps in charge of different parts of the conquered territories or petty ganasanghas
Alexander only touched the western border of India, Indian tradition remained silent over his campaign
Initiation of Greco-Roman influenced Indian culture and political life significantly
Indo-Greeks were the rulers in the western India after the demise of Alexander

MAURYAS

Chandragupta Maurya was the first ruler who unified whole India into one political unit
Kautilya (also known as Chanakya ) was the main architect of the Mauryan empire
Megasthenes was the Greek ambassador from Seleucos to the court of Chandragupta Maurya
Arthasastra(by Kautilya),Indica (by Megasthenes) and inscriptions of Ashoka provides the source for the history of Mauryan period

CHANDRAGUPTA MAURYA (324-300BC)

Buddhist sources Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa describe him as the scion of Kshatriya clan of the Moriyas branch of Sakyas who lived in Pippalavana in eastern U.P.
Mudrarakshasa uses terms as Kulahina and Vrishala for Chandragupta Maurya
Justin a Greek writer mentions that he was ‘born in humble life’
Jain text Parisistha Parvam, describes that with the help of Chanakya, Chandragupta defeated the Nanda king and captured him, became the ruler of Magadha
Junagarh rock inscription says that a dam Sudarshana lake for irrigation was constructed in Western India by Pushyagupta, a provincial governor of Chandragupta Maurya.
According to Jaina tradition in his old age Chandragupta abdicated the throne and retired to Shravanbelagola in Karnataka with his teacher and Jain ascetic Bhadrabahu
He defeated the invading army of the Greek Kshatrapa Seleucos in about 305 BC, Seleucos conceded the territories of Kandahar, Kabul, Herat and Baluchistan and Chandragupta presented him 500 elephants
Chandragupta established a vast empire except Kalinga and southern states

BINDUSARA (300-273BC)

Son of Chandragupta Maurya
Jain scholar Hemachandra and Tibetan historian Taranath say that Chanakya outlived Chandragupta and continued as master of Bindusara
Divyavadana mentions, Bindusara appointed son Susima(also Sumana)-viceroy of Taxila and Ashoka in Ujjain
Bindusara maintained friendly relation with Hellenic world. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelphus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to his court

ASHOKA (273-232BC)

According to Buddhist sources his mother was Janapada Kalyani or Subhadrangi
First king in Indian history who left his records engraved on stones, inscriptions were found in India, Nepal, Pakistan and Afghanistan, altogether they appear in 47 places
Edict II and XIII mentions that his immediate neighbouring states were those of Cholas, Pandyas, Satyaputras and Keralaputras
Name Ashoka occur only in Minor Rock Edict I found in Karnataka (3 places) and M.P. (I place), all other rock edicts mention him as Devanampiya or Piyadasi

Language and scripts	Rock and Pillar edicts
· Prakrit language and Kharosthi script	· Pakistan area
· Prakrit language and Brahmi script	· All other areas of India & Nepal
· Greek & Aramaic language and scripts	· Afghanistan

IMPORTANT ROCK/PILLAR EDICTS/CAVES	BRIEF DESCRIPTION
Rock Edict I	Prohibits animal slaughter and killing
Rock Edict II	Care for humkan and animals, mentioned southern kingdoms of Chola, Pandyas, Keralputras
Rock Edict IV	Dhammaghosa the ideal for mankind
Rock Edict V	Appointment of Dharmamahamatras
Rock Edict VII	Self control and purity of mind and tolerance to all religions
Rock Edict VIII	States Ashoka’s first Dhamma Yatra to Bodhgaya & Bodhi Tree
Rock Edict XII (Dhauli,Odisha)	Equal respect to all religious communities, abstention from killing, truthfulness, morality, ethics, respect to elders and service to poor
Rock Edict XIII (Dhauli,Odisha)	Describes horrors and miseries of Kalinga war
Barabar cave inscriptions(Bihar), and Nagarjuni caves	Oldest surviving rock cut caves in India, donated to Ajivika sects my Ashoka & his grandson Dasharatha Maurya
Maski Inscriptions(Karnataka)	Contain name Ashoka instead of Devanampiya or Piyadasi
Rummindei Pillar Inscriptions(Nepal)	Ashoka’s visit to Lumbini and exemption of tax to Lumbini
Girnar Hills, Junagarh,Gujarat	Major Rock edict in Brahmi script
Kandahar (Afghanistan)	Westernmost inscription,bilingual, Greek and Aramaic
Asoka’s 7 pillar edicts have been found at Topra (Delhi) , Meerut, Kausambi, Rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli. Minor pillar edicts have been found at Sanchi, Sarnath, Kalsi(near Dehradun) Rummindei(Nepal),Nigalisagar(Nepal)

· PILLAR EDICT II		What is Dhamma? Defines Dhamma(Moral Law)
· PILLAR EDICT IV		· Deals duties of Rajjukas

After Kalinga war Ashoka adopted Buddhism
He conducted Dharmayatras
Sent missionaries to western Asia, Eastern Europe, Srilanka(Mahendra, son & Sanghamitra his daughter,
Inscription of Asoka mentions 5 foreign kings where message of Buddhism was sent

KING	AREAS
Antiochus Theos	Syria and western Asia
Antiginas Gonatas	Macedonia
Ptolemy Philadelphus	Egypt
Megas	Cyrene
Alexander	Epirus

OFFICERS IN MAURYAN PERIOD

Rajjukas were the officers responsible for land measurements and fixing their boundaries, also given the power to punish the guilty and set free the innocents .
Pradeshikas: Responsible for the collection of revenues, also in charge of the district administration
Dandapasika: Head of the police
Mahabaldhikrita: Head of the army
Mahadandanayaka: Head of the Judge
Kanchuki: Head of queen’s harem
Tikina: Head of roadways
Dhruvadhikarna: Head of the revenue

Mauryan Chronology

Causes of Decline of Mauryan Empire

Absence of able ruler after Ashoka
Revolt of Andhras in South
Ashoka’s pacifist policy may have weakened the empire’s military strength
Non maintenance of strong army in the later years, and inadequacy of the military power could not sustain the empire
Raids of Greek kings in the western side of the empire
The empire was centralized so the weak kings could not administer over whole of the empire
Disillusioned by the unworthiness of the later kings led to seize of the empire by Pushyamitra Sunga, commander in chief of the army and killed the last Maurya King Brihadratha.
Pushyamitra Sunga started the Sunga dynasty
Fall of the Mauryas led to the hordes of barbarians pour through northern-western gates of the country and establish powerful kingdoms in Gandhara,Sakala

SUNGA DYNASTY

TheSunga Empire was an ancient Indian dynasty from Magadha that controlled vast areas of the Indian subcontinent from around 187 to 78 BC.
Pushyamitra Sunga ruled for 36 years and was succeeded by his sonAgnimitra.
Pushyamitra belonged to Brahmana family of Bharadwaja clan
He was the general of the last imperial Mauryas
Pataliputra was the capital but later in the city of Vidisha(Besnagar) in eastern Malwa crown prince Agnimitra held his court
Greeks started their incursion in the noth-western flank of the subcontinent in the 3^rd century B.C.

Greek Advancements and Sunga

Antiochos the great of Syria had penetrated into the Kabul valley and Indian king Subhagasena had to surrender a number of elephants to him.
His son-in-law Demetrios, prince of Bactria conquered Punjab and lower Indus valley.
Menander’s briliiant achievements were praised in Patanjali and Kalidasa’s work also in Gargi Samhita

Vasumitra, son of Agnimitra inflicted defeat on the Yavanas (Greeks)
His grandfather performed two horse sacrifices (Ashwamedha)
Sunga dynasty was significant in defending the Aryavarta from attack of the Greeks
It started new Brahmanical Movement which reached its climax in the times of the Guptas
Ancient Buddhist scripture Divyavadana and Tibetan historian Taranath pines that earlier Sunga rulers persecuted Buddhism which led to the decline of Buddhism in India
Later Sungas were amenable to Buddhism and stupas at Bharhut was contributed by them
Agnimitra was the hero of Kalidasa’s famous drama Malavikgnimitram
Vidisha modern Besnagar,Eastern Malwa became the centre of power during this time

Sunga Rulers	Period of rule
Pushyamitra Sunga	185–149 BCE
Agnimitra	149–141 BCE
Vasumitra	141–131 BCE
Bhdraka (Ardraka or Odruka)	131–124 BCE
Pulindaka	124–122 BCE
Ghosa (Ghosavasu)	122–119 BCE
Vajramitra	?
Bhagabhadra (Bhagavata)	?
Devabhuti	83-73 BCE

One of the rulers among the later kings was Bhagavata in whose court Heliodorus the ambassador of Antialcidas stayed

Heliodorus pillar, a stone column that was erected around 113 BCE in central India ^[1] in Vidisha near modern Besnagar, by Heliodorus, a Greek ambassador of the Indo-Greek king Antialcidas to the court of the Shunga king Bhagavata The site is located only 5 miles from the Buddhist stupa of Sanchi.

The pillar was surmounted by a sculpture of Garuda and was apparently dedicated by Heliodorus to the god Vāsudeva in front of the temple of Vāsudeva.

Devabhuti was the last ruler of the Sunga dynasty, this was followed by the Kanva dynasty from 75 to 30 B.C.

Kanva Rulers	Period of Rule
Basudeva	75- 66 BCE
Bhumimitra	66-52 BCE
Narayan	52-40 BCE
Susharman	40-30 BCE

TheKanva dynasty or Kanvayana was a Brahmin dynasty that replaced the Shunga dynasty in Magadha, and ruled in the Eastern part of India from 75 BCE to 30 BCE.
The last ruler of the Shunga dynasty,Devabhuti, was overthrown by Vasudeva of the Kanva dynasty in 75 BC.
Their dynasty was brought to an end by the ruler of theSatavahana dynasty or Andhras of the South

THE SATAVAHANAS/ ANDHRAS

TheSatavahanas were an Indian dynasty based in the Deccan The beginning of the Satavahana rule is dated variously from 271 BCE to 30 BCE.
Andhras are an ancient people and are mentioned in the Aitareya Bhrahmana
Greek writer Pliny had also mentioned about the Andhras
After the end of the Mauryan rule the dynasty was founded by Simuka but attained prominence under his nephew Satakarni I
Satakarni I performed two Ashwamedha yajna, his achievements are described in the Nanaghat inscription. He wsa referred to as the lord of the Dakshinapatha
After his death the empire came under the invasions of Scyathians (Sakas), Nahapana, a Saka ruler prior to Rudradaman conquered a part of the Satavahana Empire.
Fortune of the dynasty reached its zenith under the rule ofGautamiputra Satakarni. His achievements are recorded in Nasik inscription of queen mother, Gautami Balashri where he is referred as the destroyer of the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks) and Pahlavas(Parthians).He was the first king bearing matronym.
His son and successorVasisthiputra Pulamavi ruled at Pratisthana or Paithan on the bank of Godavari
Two other cities Vaijayanti and Amaravati attained eminence in this period
A king Vasisthaputra Satakarni married the daughter of Saka Satrap Rudradaman I, but Rudradaman inflicted a crushing defeat to the Satavahanas.
Sri Yajna Satakarni (A.D. 165-195) was perhaps the last of the great Satavahanas.
Most important among the succeeding powers in the Deccan were the Abhiras and the Vakatakas of Nasik, Pallavas of Kanchi, Kadambas of Vaijayanti or Banavasi and the Ikshavakus of Krishna Districts.

KHARAVELA OF KALINGA

Kharavelawas a king of Kalinga in present-day Odisha, India. The best known king of the Mahameghavahana dynasty, he ruled somewhere around 1^st or 2^nd century BC. His name is also transliterated as Khāravēḷa.
He defied the the might of Satakarni and attacked and destroyed the city of Mushika, in his fourth year he subdued Rathiras and Bhojakas of Berar
The kingdom ofKalinga had been annexed into the Mauryan empire under Ashoka around 262-261 BCE. Kalinga seems to have regained independence soon after Ashoka’s death, and Kharavela was born in an independent Kalinga.
He extended the old canal which was built by the Nandas about 300 years earlier
During his second campaign, Kharavela carried home an image of the Jaina Tirthankara from Magadha which had been previously taken from Kalinga to Magadha
Kalinga king pushed his southern conquests beyond Godavari
Kharavela is believed to be a follower ofJainism.

The Hathigumpha inscription describes him as a worshipper of all religious orders.

INDO-GREEKS (YAVANAS)

· In 250 B.C. Diodotus, the governor of Bactria revolted against the Greeks and became independent.

· Important Yavanas were Euthydemus, Demetrius, Eucratides, and Menander.

· Menander(165-145 B.c.) was the most famous, had capital at Sakala, modern Sialkot, Pakistan.

· Menander was converted to Buddhism by Buddhist monk Nagasena.

· Milindapanho was the name of the book dealing with the questions of Menander regarding Buddhism with Nagasena.

· In the history of India Indo-Greeks were the first rulers who carried the portrait of the kings on the coins.

SCYTHIANS(SAKAS)

· Indo-Greek rule in the NW India was destroyed by the Sakas, nomadic tribes of the Central Asia.

· Sakas entered India through Bolan Pass.

· Taxila was the capital

· Nahapana was the first prominent ruler, found in the record of the Satavahanas.

· Rudradamana (A.D. 130-150)was the most prominent known by the Junagarh inscription in Gujarat.

· Undertook the repairs of the Sudarshan lake dam that

PARTHIANS(PAHLAVAS)

· They were the people of Iranian origin.

· Vonones was the earliest king and captured Arachosia and Seistan adopted the title ‘great king of kings’.

· Gondophernes (A.D.19-45) was the greatest of the Parthian rulers.

· The area came under Kushanas after Gondophernes.

· Large number of coins found at Begram, Afghanistan after excavations.

KUSHANAS

· Yueh-chi were the nomadic tribe living in the North-Western border of China, they defeated and pushed towards Northern India due Great wall of China.

· Displaced the Sakas and settled in the NW India

· Chinese sources: First Yueh-chi king was Kujula Kadphises or

Kadphises I established his authority over Afghanistan and called himself ‘great king’. Also called himself dharmathida and sachadharmathida

Contd…..

KUSHANAS contd….

1. Kujula Kadphises or Kadphises I

2. Wema Kadphises or Kadphises II

Extended the Kushana territory to Punjab may be to be the Ganga- Yamuna doab. He was a devotee of Lord Siva.

3. Kanishka (A.D.78-101)

· Greatest of all Kushana kings

· Ascended the throne in 78 A.D., some historian consider this as the foundation of Saka era

· Capital at Purushpur, modern Peshwar, Pakistan

· Follower of Buddhism, 4^th Buddhist Council (Kundalavana,Kashmir) was held during his reign.

· Court was adorned by the scholars like Parsva, Vasumitra, Ashvaghosha, Charaka and Nagarjuna

· During his reign Taxila and Mathura emerged as great centre of art and culture.

4. Vashiska

5. Huvishka

6. Vasudeva the name is Indian and it can be stated that the Indianisation of the Kushana. Though his name was after a Vaishnava diety but he was a Shaiva

History of South India

Earliest reference of the Southern kingdoms were given by Ashokan inscriptions(Rock Edict II and XIII), which mentions Chola,Pandya,Satyaputra,Keralaputra and Tambapanni
Sangam literature and Megasthenese had also mentioned of them
In Hathigumpha inscription by Kahrvela he is credited of defeating the Tamil states
Tamil is the oldest among spoken languages of South India and earliest literature of this language is known as Sangam literature
Sangam means literary assembly, established by the Pandyan kings, ranges from 3^rd century B.C. to 3^rd century A.D.

Cholas

· Occupied the delta of Kaveri river, Kanchi was also their part of the kingdom

· Capital at Uraiyur

· Karikala was the earliest important king defeated joint forces of Chera and Pandya kings and successful invasion of Sri Lanka

· Had powerful navy

· Believed Vedic religion

· Illanjetcenni was the next important king

Pandyas

· Capital at Madurai

· Nedunjeliyan was was the earliest famous king

· Under Pandyas the capital Madurai and port city Korkai was great centre of trade and commerce

Cheras

· Cheras also known as the Keralaputras

· Greatest king was Sengutturan subjugated Cholas and Pandyas

· The Chera king Nedunjeral Adan is called Imayavaramban i.e. with Himalayas as the boundary of the kingdom

Fig. Early kingdoms in South India

SOCIETY AND CULTURE

(3^RD century b.c. – 3^RD century a.d.)

Book	Author	Period	Brief Description
Ramayana	Valmiki
Mahabharata	Ved Vyas
Dharmasastra	Unknown		Duties, status, and occupations of the varnas are enumerated
Smritis	Unknown		Many types, Manusmriti, Naradasmriti, Vishnusmriti, Yajnavalkasmriti, Brihaspatismriti,
Mahabhasya	Patanjali	2^nd century B.C.	Sanskrit grammar
Astadhyayi	Panini		Sanskrit grammar
Grammar of Katantra	Sarvavarman	1^st century A.D.	Scholar at the court of Satavahana king Hala
Gathasaptasati	Hala	1^st century A.D.	Written in Prakrit
Saundarananda, Buddhacharita, Vajrasuchi	Asvaghosha	1^st century A.D.	Buddhacharita is complete life history of Lord Buddha written in the form of Epic
Swapnavasavadatta	Bhasa	3^rd century B.C.	Sanskrit play
Natyashastra	Bharata	200B.C. to 200A.D.	Treatise on dance
Milindapanho		2^nd century B.C.	Written in Pali, question and answer between Indio-Greek ruler Menander and Buddhist philosopher Nagasena
Ettuttogai	Sangam laureates	Sangam period	Collection of eight anthologies
Tirukkural or Kural	Tiruvalluvar	Sangam Period	Didactic poems and teachings
Silappadikaram		Sangam period
Manimekhalali		Sangam period
Pancha Siddhantiuka	Varahamihira		Gives the summary of five schools of astronomy
Ayurveda	Origin from Atharva Veda		Study of the medicine
Sushruta Samhita	Sushruta	1^st century A. D.	Encyclopaedia of surgery
Charaka Samhita	Charaka	1^st century A. D.	Surgery and medicine, book was compiled by the students of Charaka in Taxila
History of Plants	Theophrastus		Greek writer gives an account of the medicinal plants used in India

Social Character

· Society comprised of 4 Varnas Brahman, Kshatriya, Vaishya and Shudra

· Occupations of each varna was mentioned in Dharmashastra

· Inter-Varna marriages were prevalent

Anuloma	· Marriage between the male of higher varna and female of lower varna
Pratiloma	· Marriage between the male of lower varna and female of higher varna

· Buddhist text refers that jatis was not rigidly tied to craft always. Vasettha Sutra refers to brahmanas working as cultivators and so on

· Four ashramas Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyas

· Unfortunately Dharmasastras reject the right of women to inherit

Buddhism

v Greatest name in the foreign patron of Buddhism was Kanishka

Buddhist Council	Patrons & Presidents
1^st at Rajgriha	Ajatashatru(Haryanka), Mahakashyapa as the President
2^ndat Vaishali	Kalasoka (Sisunaga dynasty)
3^rd at Pataliputra	During Ashoka(Maurya), President Mogaliputta Tissa
4^th at Kundalavana, Kashmir	Under Kanishka(Kushana) joint Presidentship of Asvghosha and Vasumitra.

Bodhisattva was the name of Budhha (Gautama) in previous lives before attaining the Buddha-hood.
Mahayanas Mahayana and Hinayana wer the two sects of Buddhism divided in 4^th Buddhist council under the patronage of Kanishaka. Mahayana considered Buddha as God. They considered salvation of all beings

Hinayana Hinayana considered Buddha as the great teacher; they considered salvation of self or individual as the goal of life.

The development of Mahayana philosophy is ascribed to Nagarjuna, contemporary of Kanishka; he propounded the Madhyamika school of Buddhist philosophy, popularly known as
Sanskrit was adopted the literature of Buddhism

Jainism

· From Magadha monks began to settle in different parts of the country,one group of Jains went to Saurashtra one group settled in the Kalinga

· Under Kharavela enjoyed royal patronage.

· Sravanbelagola (modern Karnataka) became the great centre of Jainism.

Vedic Religion

· Many early Vedic gods passed into oblivion.

· Philosophy on trinity of Gods, Brahma(the creator),Vishnu(the preserver) and Siva(the destroyer)

· One form of Vaishnavism called Bhagavatism can into prominence probably during the Sungas.

· Besnagar (Vidisha, M.P.) inscription mentions that Heliodorus,the Greek ambassador of King Antialcidas,called himself Bahagavata and erected Garudadhwaja, in honour of Vasudeva at Besnagar.

· Philosophy of Bhagavatism is described in Bhagava-Gita.

· Saivism seems to have evolved from Vedic God Rudra and Harappan deity called Pasupati

· One of the important schools of Saivism was Passupata sect founded by Lakulin or Lakulisa in 2^nd century B.C.

Christianity

· It was First century A.D. (A.D.52) that Christianity was introduced in India by St. Thomas, who according to Catholic Church of Edessa visited India twice.

· He was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus Christ died in 72 A.D.at Mylapore,Tamil Nadu

Art & Architecture

Sanchi Stupa	Originally commissioned by Ashoka in 3^rd century BC
Amaravati Stupa
Barhut Stupa
Sarnath Stupa
Karle Cave
Bhaja Cave

· Gandhara School of Art: Mostly flourished in the North-west, developed the hybrid Indo-Greekform of art where the themes were Indian.

Stucco was a popular form of Gandhara art.

Large statues of Bamiyan Buddha were one of the finest example of

Gandhara art.

Mathura School of art

· Mathura School of Art :It has the distinction in having producing the fisrt image of Buddha.It produced many images of Brahmanical,Jain sculptures of yakshas, yakshinis and portrait of kings.

Fig. Gandhara fasting Buddha

Miscellaneous

· Dionysius was an ambassador of Egyptian king Ptolemy Philadelphusto Mauryan court

· Diplomatic relationship between India and the West are recorded in the Rock Edict XIII of Ashoka

· Famous city of Alexandria became the great meeting point between the East and the West.

· In about 25 B.C. Indian embassy was sent to Roman king Augustus

AGE OF GUPTAS

(320 – 550 A.D.)

Chronology

Srigupta	Founder
Chandragupta I	320-335 A.D.
Samudragupta	335-375 A.D.
Ramagupta	375-380 A.D.
Chadragupta II (Vikramaditya)	380-413 A.D.
Kumaragupta (Mahendraditya)	415-455 A.D.
Skandagupta	455-467 A.D.
Later Guptas Purugupta, Narasimhagupta, Baladitya, Kumaragupta II, Buddhagupta, Bhanugupta, Hrashagupta, Damodargupta, Mahasengupta

Srigupta

Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta mentions maharaja Srigupta and maharaja Ghatotkacha as his ancestor
I-tsing who travelled in India from 672-695 A.D. refers to Srigupta as the builder of a temple at Gaya for the Chinese pilgrims
Puranas mention that the Guptas controlled the area along the Ganga

Chandragupta I (320-335 A.D.)

He was the first Gupta ruler to assume the title of Maharajadhiraja
Strenghthened the kingdom through matrimonial relation with the Lichchhavi (a Ganarajya) princess Kumaradevi, which brought him enormous power,prestige and resources
He occupied the whole Ganga valley
He started the Gupta era in 319 – 320 A.D.

Samudragupta (335-375 A.D.)

Probably the greatest king and conquerors of the Gupta dynasty
Calls himself Lichchhavi Dauhitra in Allahabad pillar inscriptions
His name appear in the Javanese text Tantrikamandaka, Chinese writer Wang- Hueng Tse refers that one ambassador was sent by king Meghavarna of Sri Lanka asking for bulding a Buddhist monastery in Bodh Gaya (modern Bihar).
Allahabad Pillar inscriptions by his court poet Harisena accounts for his detailed account of his personality and achievements with authenticity
Samudragupta believed in the policy of war and conquest. British historian V A Smith termed him as the Napoleon of India
His empire spanned the Kushana in the North-Western flank, and Vakatakas (modern Southern Mahrashtra) in the South.
He was the upholder of Brahmanical religion, Allahabad Pillar inscriptions mention the title Dharma Prachar Bandhu for him
A long list of kings and princes were defeated by him in Aryavarta and his Southern campaign comprised subduing twelve kings and princes, following which he performed Ashvamedhayajna and issued gold coins depicting yajna performance
Samudragupta was a versatile genius; with proficiency in sastras calling him as Kaviraja (king of poets) also he was a great musician.

Figure: Gol
d coin of Samudragupta playing Veena

Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) (380-413 A.D.)

Gupta empire reached its highest glory in terms of territorial expansion and cultural excellence under Chandragupta II
He was the son of Samudragupta and Dattadevi
Established matrimonial relation with Vakatakas by marrying Prabhavatigupta, daughter of Vakataka king Rudrasena II
His foremost success was his victory over This gave a tremendous impetus in trade and commerce. Ujjain became the great centre of trade, religion and culture, which became the second capital of the Gupta empire.
After the victory over the Sakas Chandragupta adopted the title of Vikramaditya. Chandragupta issued some dated silver coins to commemorate his victory over the Sakas
Mehrauli iron pillar inscription erected originally in front of a Vishnu temple(near Qutb Minar in Delhi)records the exploits of a king named Chandra
Overpowered Vahlikas across Indus river, enemies in Vanga
During his time Chinese pilgrim Fa Hien visited India
Great writer and scholar of Sanskrit Kalidas flourished in his time and of Kumaragupta I

Kumaragupta I (415-455 A.D.)

Adopted the title of Mahendraditya
Introduced the worship of God Kartikeya
Founded the monastery of Nalanda, which developed into a great centre of learning
Like his grandfather,Samudragupta he issued Ashvamedha type of coins
At the end of his reign Gupta empire challenged by the Pushyamitras, a community living on the bank of the Narmada, whom his son and successor Skandagupta subdued

Skandagupta (455-467 A.D.)

There was a struggle for the throne between Skandagupta and Purugupta, Skandagupta ascended the throne
His reign was full of wars, his greatest threat was Hunas
Skandagupta inflicted a crushing defeat on the Hunas
Restoration of the Sudarshana lake in which was built during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, and repaired during the reign of Saka kshatrapa Rudradamana I

Decline of the Guptas

Lack of able ruler after Skandagupta only exception was Budhagupta who was the last ruler to rule the vast extent of the Gupta empire
Huna invasion under Tormana in 512 A.D.
Tormana was succeeded by his son MihirKula who established his capital at Sakala(modern Sialkot)
Hiuen-Tsang describes that Mihirkula invaded Magadha and defeated and captured by Gupta King Baladitya
According an inscription from Malwa a local ruler of Malwa Yasovarman defeated Mihirkula
After the decline of the Gupta rule until the rise of Harsha, major kingdoms were :-

Guptas of Magadha	(new and minor dynasty)
Maukharis	held the region around Kannauj,U.P. Maukharis conquered Magadha. Insanavarman and his son Sarvavarman were powerful Maukhari kings and adopted the title of maharajadhiraja
Vanga:	in A.D. 525, an independent kingdopm was established in Bengal Under Sasanka with Karnasuvarna as his capital
Maitrakas:	the clan under the leadership of Bhatarka established a kingdom at Saurashtra with capital at Valabhi, which became the centre of trade, culture and learning
Pushyabhutis:	Were the feudatories of Guptas. Came into prominence after the Huna invasion and had their capital at Thaneswar, under Prabhakarvardhan

Pushyabhuti Dynasty:

They were the feudatories of Guptas came into prominence after the Huna invasion and had their capital at Thaneswar, under Prabhakarvardhan, who assumed the title of parambhattaraka maharajadhiraja and was described by Banabhatta as the “lion to the Huna deer”. He had two sons and one daughter Rajyashri

Rajyavardhan
Harshavardhan

Harshavardhan (606-647 A.D.)

Harsha belonged to Pushyabhuti dynasty, ruling from Thaneswar.
His reign was comparatively well documented, by his court poet Banbhatta(Bana), who authored Harshacharita(account of Harsha’s rise to power), Kadambari and Parvatiparinay
Harsha’s dramas like Ratnavali, Nagananda and give us the political and social aspects of that era.
His sister Rajyashri was married to Maukhari king Grahavarman, the Maukhari king who was murdered by Sasanka.
Rajyavardhan was murdered by Sasanka of Gauda (modern Bengal) who occupied Kannauj.
After the death of his brother Rajyavardhan he ascended the throne Harsha ascended the throne and drove away Sasanka from Kannauj and made Kannauj as his new capital.
The area under his control covered many parts of Northern India, including the Punjab, eastern Rajasthan, and the Ganga valley as far as Assam.
Harsha governed his empire in the same lines as the Guptas
Harsha’s ambition of extending the power to the Deccan and Southern India were stopped by Pulakeshin II, the Chalukyan king of Vatapi(Badami)

SOCIETY-ECONOMY AND CULTURE FROM THE GUPTAS TO HARSHA

Unit	Meaning
Rajya	Kingdom
Bhukti (in the North India)	Province
Mandala or Mandalam (in the Southern)	Province
Visayas or Bhoga (in North)	Subdivisions of the Province
Kottams or Valanadu (in South)	Subdivisions of the Province
Adhisthana or Pattana (in North)	Districts
Nadu (in South)	Districts
Vithis (in North)	Tehsil
Pattala or Kurram (in South)	Tehsil

Official	Meaning
Uparika	Governor of bhukti appointed by the king
Vishayapati	In charge of the vishayas
Nagarshresthis	Chief of the guild of traders and bankers
Sarthavaha	Head of the guild of traders
Prathamakulika	Chief of the artisan
Prathamakayastha	Chief scribe
Sandhivigrahika	Minister of peace and war (introduced by the Guptas)
Kumaramatyas	Body of top ranking officers (introduced by the Guptas)

Guptas were the first rulers in India to adopt high sounding titles like Maharajadhiraja, Parambhattaraka, Paramesvara

Literary works	Authors	Brief descriptions
Malavikagnimitram	Kalidasa (Sanskrit writer)	Play on the life of Agnimitra(Sunga king) and his consort
Meghaduta	Kalidasa	Epic Poem
Kumarasambhava	Kalidasa	Epic poem regarding birth of Kartikeya
Raghuvamsa	Kalidasa	Sanskrit mahakavya on the life of lord Rama
Abhijnanashakuntalam	Kalidasa	Play about Dushmanta, Shakuntala and Bharata
Ritusamhara	Kalidasa	Mini epic on the seasons in India
Vikramorvasiyam	Kalidasa	Five act play in Sanskrit on the Vedic love story of king Pururavas and an Apsara, a celestial nymph named Urvashi
Mandsor inscription	Vatsabhatti	Kumaragupta I
Allahabad pillar inscription	Harisena	Samudragupta
Mehrauli pillar inscription	Inscription on the pillar is in Sanskrit, written in Gupta-period Brahmi script. This states that the pillar was erected as a standard in honour of Vishnu	It also praises the valor and qualities of a king identified with the Gupta King Chandragupta II
Junagarh inscription	Earliest (150 A.D.) Sanskrit inscription, credits Rudradaman I with supporting the cultural arts and Sanskrit literature and repairing the dam, Sudarshana lake built by the Mauryas	Rudradaman I (Shaka Kshatrapa)
Aihole inscription	Pulakeshin II (634 A.D.)	Writer Ravikriti, Enumerates the life and works of Early Chalukya king Pulakeshin II, written in Sanskrit

Mrichchakatika	Sudraka	Play deals with a love affair played between a Brahman and a daughter of a courtesan
Mudrarakshasa	Vishakhadatta	Play based on the ascent of the kingChandragupta Maurya (324 – c. 297 BCE) to power in India
Devichandraguptam	Vishakhadatta	Play regarding the wife of Chandragupta II, Dhruvadevi
Mahaviracharita	Bhavbhuti	Story of Lord Rama’s early life
Uttararamacharita	Bhavabhuti	Play (The story of Rama’s later life), depicts Rama’s coronation, the abandonment of Sita, and their reunion
Malati-Madhava	Bhavabhuti	Play on the romance between minister’s daughter Malati and madhava a poet
Dasakumaracharita	Dandin
Vasavadatta	Subandhu	A romantic tale of the Gupta(may be courtier of Kumaragupta I) period
Panchatantra	Vishnusharma	Moral stories based on animal fables in Sanskrit
Harshacharita	Banabhatta, court poet of Harsha	Biography of king Harsha in Sanskrit
Three shatakas	Bhartrihari
Mahabhasaya	Patanjali	Sanskrit Grammar book
Amarkosha	Amarsimha, luminary in the court of Chandragupta II	A lexicon of Sanskrit
Prakritaprakasha	Vararuchi	A book written in Prakrit language
Prakritalakshana	Chanda	Prakrit grammar
Katyayanaprakarna		Pali grammar

Alvars: also spelt asalwars were Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused bhakti(devotion) to the Hindu god Vishnu or his avatar Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service.^[1] They are venerated especially in Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu or Krishna as the Supreme Being.
Nayanars : TheNayanars “teachers of Siva”)^[1] were a group of 63 saints (also saint poets) in the 6th to 8th century who were devoted to the Hindu god Shiva I Southern India

Art and Architecture

Art and architecture	Brief Description	Built under
Nalanda stupa, Bihar	Large monastery in the ancient kingdom of Magadha, flourished to the maximum during the Palas	Guptas, Harsha, Palas
Udaygiri caves near Vidisha, M.P. partly rock cut partly stone built	feature some of the oldest Hindu images and cave temples in India, shows Vishnu in Varaha Avatar, bears inscriptions regarding the reign of Chandragupta II and Kumaragupta	Most important site of Gupta period,
Ajanta caves, Maharashtra	Inner wall paintings and rock cut pillars	Vakatakas, 7^th century A.D.
Bagh caves, Dhar district, M.P. with Buddhist inspiration, comprises monasteries in the red sandstones	The Bagh Caves are a group of nine rock-cut monuments, situated among the southern slopes of Vindhyas in Bagh town Simple architecture but famous paintings	7^th century A.D.
Ellora Caves, Aurangabad, Maharashtra	UNESCO world heritage site, The 34 “caves” are actually structures excavated out of the vertical face of the Charanandri hills. Hindu, Buddhist and Jain rock-cut temples and viharas and mathas	Rashtrakutas
Karle Cave, near Lonavala,Pune, Maharashtra	Ancient Buddhist rock cut cave shrines, presesnce of intricately carved chaityas or prayer hall	Built between 2^nd century B.C. to 5^th century A.D.
Bhaja Caves, near Lonavala,Pune, Maharashtra	Ancient Buddhist rock cut cave shrines, presence of intricately carved large chaityas or prayer hall and stupa	Built between 2^nd century B.C. to 5^th century A.D.
Bhitargaon temple, Kanpur, U.P.	Development of Shikhara	Late Guptas
Kailashnath temple	A block of hill was cut into a monolithic temple with a spacious hall and finely carved pillars	Krishna I, Rashtrakutas
Mamallapuram temple	Pillared halls and seven monolithic temples popularly called rathas	Pallava kings, Mahendravarman and Narasimhavarman in 7^th century A.D.
Structural temples at Kanchi, known as Kailashanatha and Vaikuntha Perumal	Structural temples	Pallavas
Cave temple of Sittannavasala in Pudukottai(Madras)	contains some fine paintings	Pallavas
Monasteries and stupas at Bodhgaya (Gaya, Bihar): Presence of Mahabodhi temple, Gautama Budhha attained enlightenment under the Bodhi tree, declared a UNESCO world heritage in 2002. For Buddhists, Bodh Gaya is the most important of the main four pilgrimage sites related to the life of Gautama Buddha, the other three being Kushinagar, Lumbini, and Sarnath Sarnatha (near Varanasai, U.P.): The deer park in Sarnath is where Gautama Buddha first taught the Dharma, and where the Buddhist Sangha came into existence. Kusinagara (near Gorakhpur, U.P.): It is an important Buddhist pilgrimage site, where Buddhists believe Gautama Buddha attained Parinirvana after his death. Lumbini: In Nepal, It is the place where, according to Buddhist tradition, Queen Mayadevi gave birth to Siddhartha Gautama in 563 BCE Sravasti (U.P.): Buddha passed the greater part of his monastic life in Shravasti. Kanchi: The city was also a religious centre of advanced education for Jainism andBuddhism between the 1st and 5th centuries. Nalanda: was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large Buddhist monastery also was a centre of Vedic learning in the ancient kingdom of Magadha (near Patna, modern Bihar). The school attracted scholars and students from near and far with some travelling all the way from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia.
Dasavatar temple, Deogarh, U.P.	Development of Shikhara for the 1^st time in North India, also called Gutpta temple, is a source of Gupta style of sculpture and art.	Guptas in 5^th century A.D.
Kankali temple at Tigawa,near Jabalpur, M.P.	has a sanctum and an open portico supported on four pillars	Earliest temple dated back to Gupta period
Vishnu and Varaha temple at Eran Madhya Pradesh	Structural temples(small) with flat roof	Guptas
Famous iron pillar at Delhi near Qutb Minar	23 feet iron pillar, shows the metallurgical skill of the Guptas	The pillar weighs over 6,000 kg, and is thought to have originally been erected in what is now Udayagiri by one of the Gupta kings in approximately 402 A.D. It was transported to Delhi in 1233 A.D.
80 feet copper statue of Buddha, Sultanganj, Bhagalpur, Bihar	Shows the metal casting skills of the contemporary period,	Gupta- Pala transition period

Shikhara: The superstructure above the sanctum-sanctorum containing images of deities. It marked the development of two distinct styles viz. northern Indian style (Nagara style) and south Indian (Dravidian style). At Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal both styles are noticeable.
Vimana: is a term for the tower above theGarbhagrihaor Sanctum sanctorum in a Hindu temple

PALLAVAS (560-903 A.D.)

They were orthodox Brahmanical Hindus and their capital was at Kanchi.
Both Chalukyas and Pallavas tried to establish their supremacy over land between Krishna and Tungabhadra
Pallava king Narasimhavarman(630-68) occupied Chalukyan capital at Vatapi and assumed the title Vatapikonda
Pallavas were instrumental in spreading Indian culture in South-East Asia. Till the 8^th century A.D. Pallava influence was predominant in Cambodia.

The Pallava type of Shikhara is found in the temples of Java, Cambodia and Annam

The Pallavas (300-888 A.D.)

Simhavishnu I

Mahendravarman I

Narasimhavarman I

Mahendravarman II

Parameshwaravarman I

Narasimhavarman II

Parameshwaravarman II

Nandivarman II

THE CHOLA EMPIRE (9^th to 12^th Century)

The founder of the Chola dynasty was Vijayalya, who was the first feudatory of the Pallavas. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D.
The greatest Chola ruler was Rajaraja (985-1014 A.D.) and Rajendra, his son(1014-1044 A.D.)
Rajaraj built a Saiva temple at Tanjore called as Rajarajeshwara temple.
Rajendra I underwent a military expedition to Bengal to the bank of river Ganga and assumed the title Gangaikondachola and built a city with the name of
The Chola Empire was divided into Mandalams or provinces; these were further divided into Valnadu and Nadu.
Local self government was the basic feature of the Chola administration of the Cholas.
Dravida style of architecture were developed during this period e.g., Kailashnatha temple
Image making reached its climax during the reign of Cholas, climax being the dancing figure of Nataraja
Ramayana was written by Kambama, the greatest figure of Tamil poetry. This was called as Tamil Ramayana.
Pamapa,Ponna and Ranna are considered as three gems of Kannada poetry

The Cholas (850 -1276 A.D.)

Vijayalya

Parantaka I

Rajaraja I

Rajendra I

Rajadhiraja

Rajendra II

Virarajendra

Kulottunga I

INDIA AFTER HARSHA

Death of Harsha in 647A.D. to the establishment of Delhi Sultanate took 600 years and saw some important changes in India.
Rise of important kingdoms in the Eastern(Palas), Northern(Pratiharas) and Southern(Rashtrakutas in the Deccan) India wa seen
Cultural traditions remained stable though there was conflicts among these kingdoms
Close interaction among the various regions of India led to the crystallization of common cultural trends, seen in the literarture, education, and art and architecture of the period.
Spread of Muslim rule over the major part of the Northern India
After the death of Harsha, a powerful king Yashovarman ruled over the vast empire which included almost the whole of North India.
His victory over Bengal formed the subject of the famous kavya Gaudavaho by Vakpatiraja, a court poet.
Yashovarman was famous king who sent embassy to China in A.D. 731
Famous dramatist Bhavabhuti (author of Malati-Madhava, Uttara-Ramacharita and Mavavira-Charita) adorned his court.
KANNAUJ fell to Mohammad Ghori in 1192 A.D.

PRATIHARAS (773-1019 A.D.)

Tradition of Rajasthan claims that the Gurjara Pratihara were born out of the yajna done at Mount Abu
Pratihara claims that their ancestor served as the doorkeeper of Lord Rama
The geographical name of Gujarat is derived from Gurjara
Early history of the family is preserved in Gwalior inscription
Pratiharas dominated north India for over two hundred years from 8^th to 10^th century
Al-Masudi, a native of Baghdad who visited India in 915-916 A.D. testifies the power of the Pratiharas

King	Brief Description
Nagabhatta I	· Real founder of the family · He defeated the Muslim forces of Arabs
Vatsaraja	· Defeated the Pala Dharmapala · Rashtrakuta king Dhruva defeated Vatsaraja
Nagabhatta II	· Son of Vatsaraja made aliiance with kings like AndhrasVidarbha, kalinga · Defeated Chkrayudha of Kannauj, a nominee installed by the Pala ruler Dharmapala · Defeated Pala ruler Dharmapala and fought with Rashtrakuta ruler Govinda III
Ramabhadra	· Ruled for a brief period
Mihira Bhoja (Bhoja I)	· Defeated Krishna II and captured the region of Malwa and Gujarat · Famous of all Pratihara kings · Devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of *Adivaraha* · Also known as Mihira, Pravasa · Extolled by Arab historian Sulaiman
Mahendrapala I	· Kept the vast empire intact · Also known as Mahendrayudha and Nirbhayanarendra · Was a liberal patron of learned man, his guru was Rajashekhara who wrote several important books
Mahipala

PALAS
After the death of Harsha ascendancy of the Palas were seen in Bengal
After a period of internal disorder, which is termed as matsyanyaya, the people of Bengal elected Gopala as the king of Bengal.
During Pala period the fame of Nalanda University spread all over the world. King Balaputradeva, the king of Suvarnadwipa(modern Malayan peninsula, Java and Sumatra) erected a monastery at Nalanda and requested Pala King Devapala to donate five villages for the ,maintenance of the monastery
They had capital at Gaur
Though patronised of Buddhism extensively Palas patronised Hinduism also, Vinayakapala built one thousand Shiva temples in honour of Shiva deity
The Palas had trade contacts and cultural relation with South-East Asia and China

King	Brief description
Gopala	· Founder of the Pala dynasty
Dharmapala	· Son and successor of Gopala · Ascended the throne in about A.D. 780 · Defeated the king of Kannauj Indrayudha and put his nominee Chakrayudha at Kannauj · Dhruva, the Rashtrakuta king defeated him near Monghyr · Founded Vikramshila university
Devapala	· Reckoned as the most mighty Pala king · Conquered extensive areas like Pragjyotishpur(Assam) and Utkala(Odisha) · They ruled Bihar, Bengal, Assam, Odisha for about 4 centuries · Arab writer Sulaiman attested the power of Ruhma(as called by him to Dharmapala) · Details of the Pala rule is also found in the Tibetan chronicles ·

RASHTRAKUTAS
Dantidurga who fixed the capital at Manyakhet or Malkhed near modern Sholapur was the founder of the dynasty ruling the Deccan
The term Rashtrakutas means the designated officers in charge of territorial divisions called Rashtras

Dantidurga	Also called as Dantivarman, was the founder of the Rashtrakutas
Krishna I	· Built Kailashnath temple
Govinda II
Dhruva	· Defeated the Chalukyas of Vengi and the Gangas of Mysore · First of the Rashtrakutas to intervene in the tripartite struggle in the North · Defeated Pratihara king Vatsaraja and Pala king Dharmapala
Govinda III	· Successful campaign to Kannauj defeated Chakrayudha the nominee of Dharmapala
Amoghavarsa I	· Ruled for 60 years · Principles of Jainism appealed him more · Leanings towards arts and literatures · Wrote Kavirajamarga, the earliest work in Kannada poetics
Krishna II	·
Indra III	· Defeated Pratihara king Mahipala I and plundered his capital Kannauj
Amoghavarsa II	·
Govinda IV	·
Amoghavarsa III	·
Krishna III	· Last line of brilliant ruler · Launched a campaign to the Chola ruler of Tanjore, reached Rameshwaram and built a victory pillar and a temple
Khottiga	·
Karka	·

Society and Culture in the post Harsha Period

Literary works	Author	Brief Description
Gaudavaho	Vakpati	Biography of Yashovarman of Kannauj, written in Prakrit
Ramacharita	Sandhyakar Nandi	Written during the Pala ruler Mahipala of Bengal regarding the life of Rampala
Raghavapandavija	Dhananjay Shrutokriti	Describes the stories of Ramayana and Mahabharata
Parvati-Rukminiya	Vidyamadhava	Marriage of Parvati and Shiva, Krishna and Rukmini, author was the court poet of Chalukya king Somadeva
Saptasandhana	Hemchandra	Having seven interpretations
Shatarthakavya	Somaprvacharya	Poetry with several interpretations
Adinathacharita	Vardhamana	Jaina narratives on the life of Jaina teachers
Shantinathacharita	Devachandra	Jaina narratives on the life of Jaina teachers
Prithvichandracharita	Shantisuri	Jaina narratives on the life of Jaina teachers
Parsvanathcharita	Devabhadra	Jaina narratives on the life of Jaina teachers
Kumarapalacharita	Hemchandra	Jaina narratives on the life of Jaina teachers
Neminathacharita	Hemachandra	Jaina narratives on the life of Jaina teachers
Dvayashraya Mahakavya	Hemchandra
Rajtarangini	Kalhana	History of the kings of Kashmir and the text is unique in a sense that it attempted writing of history in modern sense
Prithviraja Vijay	Jayanka	Biography of Prithviraj Chouhan
Rajendra Karnapura	Shambhu	Eulogy of kings of Kashmir
Kirtikaumudi	Somesvara	Chronicle of Gujarat
Vikramankadevacharita	Bilhana,	Biography ofwestern Chalukyan emperor Vikramaditya VI
Navasahasankacharita	Padmagupta	Tells the story of king Navasahasanka of Malwa and his exploits
Kavyamimamsa	Rajashekhara, court poet of Gurjara Pratiharas	Explains the elements of good poems
Dasarupa	Dhananjaya	A treatise on Hindu dramaturgy
Saraswatikanthabharana	Bhoja
Kavyaanusasana	Hemchandra
Kavikanthabharana	Kshemachandra
	PROSE
Brihatkathamnajari	Kshemachandra	Adventures of Udayana and winning of Padmavati
Kathasaritsagara	Somadeva	Stories
Kathakoshaprakarana	Jineshvara
	DRAMA
Lalitavigraharajanataka	Somadeva
Harikeli nataka	Visaladeva
Prasannaraghava	Jayadeva
Karnasundari	Bilhana
Abhidhanchintamani	Hemachandra
Deshinamamala	Hemachandra
Anekarthasamgraha	Hemachandra
Nighantushesha	Hemchandra
	SCIENCE & MEDICINE
Siddhanta Shiromani	Bhaskaracharya, Mathematician	Comprises four parts Lilavati, Vijaganita, Grahaganita, and Gola
Rajmarignka	Paramara king Bhoja	Astronomy
Revision of Charaka Samhita	By Dridhabala of Panchananda, Kashmir	Medicine
Nidana or Rigvimshchana	Madhava	Medicine (Pathology) the work was translated into Arabic by Harun Al-Rashid
Chikitsa Kutamudgara	Madhava	Medicine
Yogavakhya	Madhava	Medicine
Chikitsakalika	Tisata, son of Vagabhata	Medicine
Yoga-Mala	Tisata, son of Vagabhata	Medicine
Yogaratnasamuchchhaya	Chandratha, Tisata’s son	Medicine
Siddhayoga	Brinda	written in between 975-1000A.D. in Bengal
	COMMENTARIES ON RELIGION
Krityakalpataru	Lakshmidhara
Chaturvarga Chintamani	Hemadri
Mitakshara	Vijnaneshvara	The Mitakshara is a commentary on only one Smriti called Yajnavalkya Smriti
Commentary on Yajnavalkasmriti	Vijnaneshvara
Commentary on Yajnavalkasmriti	Aparaka
Dayabhaga	Jimutavahana	Dayabhaga is a digest of all the Smritis; law of inheritance etc.
Vyavaharamatrika	Jimutavahana
Kalaviveka	Jimutavahana
Manuvritti	Govindaraja
Smrityarthasara	Sridhara
Smritichandrika	Devanna Bhatta
Nitishastra	Mathara

Religion

Buddhism

Buddhism witnessed a decadence of pure Hinayana and Mahayana Buddhism
Influence of Tantric ideas into Buddhism is evident in Vajrayana Buddhism (the vehicle of thunderbolt
Tara was started to be worshipped as the saviouress, spouses of male Bodhisattvas received as veneration as Shakti
Palas patronized Buddhism, kings of Odisha; Kashmir and parts of North Western India were the centres of Buddhism. In south Kanchi was a great centre of Buddhism. Chola kings also gave donations to Buddhists.

Jainism

Gained popularity among the trading classes of north and west India.
In the Deccan it was honoured by the Gangas, Chalukyas and by Rashtrakutas rulers.
During this period many basadis (temples) and mahastambhas(pillars) were set up on different parts of India.
Colossal image at Shravanabelagola was set up during this period

Tantricism became popular in this period
Vaishnavism saw popular interest in the incarnation of Vishnu, most popular incarnation was of lord Krishna
Saivism attained a dominant position in the society

Lingayatas or Virasaivas, sect of Saivism became popular in south India. The sect was raised into prominence by Basava, the Prime Minister of Kalachuri king Bijjala. Their philosophies were influenced by both Sankara and Ramanuja
Sankara: also known as Adi Sankar , took birth in 788 A.D. Sankara studied at Kasi and after finishing his studies he turned to The philosophy of Sankara is known as Advaitavada, meaning ‘non-dual’. Works of Sankara are Brahmasutrabhasya, commentaries on Upanishads, commentaries on Bhagavad-Gita. Sankara organised the ten branches of Advaita school of Saivism known as Dashnamis. Established four mathas in four corners of the country,

Badrinath-North; Sharadapitha at Dvaravati (Dwaraka)- West; Govardhanamatha(Puri)-East; Shringerimatha-South

Ramanuja: Tamil Brahman born in Tirupati around 1077 A.D. Ramanuja disagreed with Sankara that knowledge was the primary means of salvation. He tried to assimiliate Bhakti to the tradition of the Vedas.
Bhakti movements were led by both Nayanars and Alvars were spread to all over the country. This Bhakti movement renewed emphasis on the Vedas and Vedic worship on the one hand powerful literary and intellectual movement on the other hand.
Buddhist Centres of education: monasteries at Vikramshila, Oddantapura, Valabhi and Nalanda

Art and architecture	Brief Description	Built under
Lingaraja Temple, Bhubaneswar	Kalinga architecture, the temple is built in Deula style	Believed to be built under Somavamsi dynasty
Konark Sun temple, Bhubaneswar	A UNESCO world heritage site, built in a complex shape of a gigantic chariot	Narasimadeva I of Eastern Ganga Dynasty in 1255 A.D.
Kashmir Sun temple	Best example of Kashmir style of literature	around 8^th century by Lalitaditya Muktipada
Jagannath temple at Puri	temple follows the pattern of many Orissan temples of the classical period with shikhara, gopuram, jagamohan etc	The temple was built in the 12th century atop its ruins by the progenitor of the Eastern Ganga dynasty, King Anantavarman Chodaganga Deva.
Khajuraho temple, Bundelkhand, M.P.	On raised plinth and known for their carving and erotic sculptures	Chandelas
Kandariya Mahadeva temple at Khajuraho	A UNESCO world heritage site, the temple was dedicated to lord Siva	The temple is said to have been built by the Chandela king Vidhyadhara, who ruled from 1017 to 1029
Dilwara temple at Mt. Abu	Built in marbles	built by Vastupal-Tejpal, a Jain laymen between the 11th and 13th centuries AD
Satrunjaya, Palitana	Jain temple at Bhavnagar, Gujarat	Not known
Sculpture of Gomateswara Bahubali( son of 1^st Jina Rishabhnath) at Shravanabelagola	57 feet free standing image , at the Hassan district of Karnataka	Western Ganga dynasty, Chandragupta Maurya died in 298 B.C. after he became a Jian ascetic
Kailasha temple at Ellora	Dedicated to lord Siva	Excavated during the reign of Krishna I of Rashtrakua dynasty
Rajarajeshwara temple also Brihadeeshwara temple, Thanjavur	Dedicated to lord Siva, Dravidian architecture, seven storey gopuram were destroyed by Tipu Sultan in 18^th century	Raja Raja Chola I The temple is part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site “Great Living Chola Temples“
Meenakshi temple, Madurai, Tamil Nadu	Dedicated to Parvati, consort of lord Siva, with large gopuram	Actually built by the survivors of Kumari Kandam in 6^th century then, plundered by Malik Kafur again rebuilt by Viswanath Nayakar around 16^th century